Magnetic Resonance Imaging Resources, Links and Info

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), formerly referred to as magnetic resonance tomography (MRT) or nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), is a method used to visualize the inside of living organisms as well as to detect the composition of geological structures. It is primarily used to demonstrate pathological or other physiological alterations of living tissues and is a commonly used form of medical imaging. MRI has also found many novel applications outside of the medical and biological fields such as rock permeability to hydrocarbons and certain non-destructive testing methods such as produce and timber quality characterization. [1] The devices used in medicine are expensive, costing approximately $1 million USD per tesla for each unit (common field strength ranges from 0.3 to 3 teslas), with several hundred thousand dollars per year of upkeep costs.

Technique
Animation of a series of sections through a human brain from an MRI scan, starting at the top of the head and moving towards the base.
Animation of a series of sections through a human brain from an MRI scan, starting at the top of the head and moving towards the base.

Medical MRI most frequently relies on the relaxation properties of excited hydrogen nuclei in water. When the object to be imaged is placed in a powerful, uniform magnetic field the spins of the atomic nuclei with non-zero spin numbers (essentially, an unpaired proton or neutron) within the tissue all align in one of two opposite directions: parallel to the magnetic field or antiparallel. Common magnetic field strengths range from 0.3 to 3 teslas, although research instruments range as high as 20 teslas, and commercial suppliers are investing in 7 tesla platforms.

An excess of only one in a million nuclei align themselves with the magnetic field since the thermal energy far exceeds the difference between the parallel and antiparallel states. Yet the vast quantity of nuclei in a small volume sum to produce a detectable change in field. Most basic explanations of NMR and MRI will say that the nuclei align parallel or anti-parallel with the static magnetic field though, because of quantum mechanical reasons beyond the scope of this article, the individual nuclei are actually set off at an angle from the direction of the static magnetic field. The bulk collection of nuclei can be partitioned into a set whose sum spin are aligned parallel and a set whose sum spin are anti-parallel.

The magnetic dipole moment of the nuclei then precesses around the axial field. While the proportion is nearly equal, slightly more are oriented at the low energy angle. The frequency with which the dipole moments precess is called the Larmor frequency. The tissue is then briefly exposed to pulses of electromagnetic energy (RF pulse) in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic field, causing some of the magnetically aligned hydrogen nuclei to assume a temporary non-aligned high-energy state. The frequency of the pulses is governed by the Larmor equation.

In order to selectively image different voxels (picture elements) of the material in question, orthogonal magnetic gradients are applied. Although it is relatively common to apply gradients in the principal axes of a patient (so that the patient is imaged in x, y, and z from head to toe), MRI allows completely flexible orientations for images. All spatial encoding is obtained by applying magnetic field gradients which encode position within the phase of the signal. In 1 dimension, a linear phase with respect to position can be obtained by collecting data in the presence of a magnetic field gradient. In 3 dimensions, a plane can defined by "slice selection", in which an RF pulse of defined bandwidth is applied in the presence of a magnetic field gradient in order to reduce spatial encoding to 2 dimensions. Spatial encoding can then be applied in 2D after slice selection, or in 3D without slice selection. In either case, a 2D or 3D matrix of spatially-encoded phases is acquired, and these data represent the spatial frequencies of the image object. Images can be created from the acquired data using the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT).

In order to understand MRI contrast, it is important to have some understanding of the time constants involved in relaxation processes that establish equilibrium following RF excitation. As the high-energy nuclei relax and realign, they emit energy at rates which are recorded to provide information about their environment. The realignment of nuclear spins with the magnetic field is termed longitudinal relaxation and the time (typically about 1 sec) required for a certain percentage of the tissue nuclei to realign is termed "Time 1" or T1. T2-weighted imaging relies upon local dephasing of spins following the application of the transverse energy pulse; the transverse relaxation time (typically < 100 ms for tissue) is termed "Time 2" or T2. A subtle but important variant of the T2 technique is called T2* imaging. T2 imaging employs a spin echo technique, in which spins are refocused to compensate for local magnetic field inhomogeneities. T2* imaging is performed without refocusing. This sacrifices some image integrity in order to provide additional sensitivity to relaxation processes that cause incoherence of transverse magnetization. Applications of T2* imaging include functional MRI (fMRI) or evaluation of baseline perfusion (CBF and CBV) using injected agents as described above; in these cases, there is an inherent trade-off between image quality and detection sensitivity. Because T2*-weighted sequences are sensitive to magnetic inhomogeneity (as can be caused by deposition of Fe-containing blood-degradation products), such sequences are utilized to detect subtle areas of recent or chronic intracranial hemorrhage ("Heme sequence").

Image contrast is created by using a selection of image acquisition parameters that weights signal by T1, T2 or T2*, or no relaxation time ("proton-density images"). In the brain, T1-weighting causes fiber tracts (nerve connections) to appear white, congregations of neurons to appear gray, and cerebrospinal fluid to appear dark. The contrast of "white matter," "gray matter'" and "cerebrospinal fluid" is reversed using T2 or T2* imaging, whereas proton-weighted imaging provides little contrast in normal subjects. Additionally, functional information (CBF, CBV, blood oxygenation) can be encoded within T1, T2, or T2*; see functional MRI (fMRI) and the section below.

Diffusion Weighted Imaging (DWI) uses very fast scans with an additional series of gradients (diffusion gradients) rapidly turned on and off. Protons from water diffusing randomly within the brain, via Brownian motion, lose phase coherence and, thus, signal during application of diffusion gradients. Within acutely infarcted brain, water diffusivity is impaired, and signal loss on DWI sequences is less than in normal brain. DWI is the most sensitive method of detecting cerebral infarction (stroke) and can identify an infarct within 30 minutes of ictus.

Typical medical resolution is about 1 mm3, while research models can exceed 1 µm3.

Contrast-enhancement

Both T1- and T2-weighted images are acquired for most medical examinations. However, these 2 sets of images are not always sufficient to adequately show anatomy or pathology. One option is to use a more sophisticated image acquisition technique - e.g. fat suppression, chemical-shift imaging. The other is to administer a contrast agent to delineate areas of interest.

A contrast agent may be as simple as water, taken orally, for imaging the stomach and small bowel. Alternatively, substances with specific magnetic properties may be used.

Most commonly, a paramagnetic contrast agent (usually a gadolinium compound) is given. Gadolinium-enhanced tissues and fluids appear extremely bright on T1-weighted images. This provides high sensitivity for detection of vascular tissues (e.g. tumors) and permits assessment of brain perfusion (e.g. in stroke).

More recently, superparamagnetic contrast agents (e.g. iron oxide nanoparticles) have become available. These agents appear very dark on T2*-weighted images. These agents may be used for liver imaging - normal liver tissue retains the agent, but abnormal areas (e.g. scars, tumors) do not. They can also be taken orally, to improve visualisation of the gastrointestinal tract, and to prevent water in the gastrointestinal tract from obscuring other organs (e.g. pancreas).

Diamagnetic agents e.g. barium sulfate have been studied for potential use in the GI tract, but are less frequently used.